Switzerland is not only the main venue of the novel but also, at least partially, its subject. In addition, many dialogues in the story refer to its history. Therefore, I thought it may be useful for some readers to have a general idea about the main events that took place in Swiss history, to the extent that history books recite. This is what you’ll find below in a very compact form. In other parts of the website, such as in the article The Historical Context of the Novel or The Historical Aspects of the Conspiracy blogpost, as in a shortened version in the novel itself, I provide details of how some of these events could be explained differently than the established view.
The Beginning
The unification of the three cantons Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden is considered to be the founding moment of the Old Swiss Confederacy. Before this event, the region now known as Switzerland was part of the Holy Roman Empire, albeit from the beginning of the 13th century onwards governed as decentralized city-states by noble families and local authorities exercising control over different territories. However, the alpine passes in Raetia and the St. Gotthard Pass were very important direct routes through the mountains, which led to the House of Habsburg holding significant interest in the region and it sought to increase its power. Rudolf of Habsburg, who became King of Germany in 1273, effectively revoked the status of “Reichsfreiheit” (self-governance) granted to the “Forest Cantons” of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. These cantons thus lost their independent status and were governed by the King’s feudal lords.
Seeking freedom from the Habsburg rule and using the death of King Rudolf as an opportunity, they united, which is often attributed to the legendary event of the “Ruetlischwur” (the Oath of the Ruetli) on August 1st, 1291. According to traditional retelling, the representatives of these three cantons gathered on a meadow and swore an oath of mutual defense and cooperation against external threats. Over the years, this initial alliance expanded, and additional cantons joined, leading to the gradual formation of the Swiss Confederacy. The Battle of Morgarten in 1315, where the Swiss peasants successfully but surprisingly defended their territories against the much stronger and well-trained Habsburg forces, further solidified their determination for independence.
In the Middle Ages, the majority of the people living in those regions were indeed farmers. The mountainous terrain influenced their way of life, as they adapted to the challenges of a combination of agriculture, animal husbandry, and transhumance, a seasonal migration of livestock between different elevations. Consequently, they were known for their self-sufficiency and a strong sense of community. Living in close-knit villages, they had to rely on each other for support in the face of external threats or harsh environmental conditions. The mountainous landscape also provided a natural defense against potential invaders.
The Expansion Period in Swiss History
Starting right after the success of the Battle of Morgarten and especially with the victory at the Battle of Sempach in 1386, when the Swiss decisively defeated the Habsburgs, they not only increased their autonomy within the Holy Roman Empire but developed the Swiss mercenary forces, professional soldiers who were notable for their service in foreign armies, especially among the military forces of the Kings of France, throughout the Early Modern period of European history, from the Late Middle Ages to the Renaissance. This achievement of being able to provide men with proven battlefield capabilities as mercenaries to several armies would prove to have a profound effect on later Swiss history.
As a result of the superiority of their armed forces, the Late Medieval period in Switzerland was marked by an expansion of the Swiss Confederacy. The Burgundian Wars saw the Swiss Confederacy successfully resisting Burgundian attempts to expand into the region. The decisive Battle of Nancy in 1477 ended Charles the Bold‘s ambitions in the area.
Internally, the confederation faced occasional conflicts, sometimes due to territorial disputes or differences among the member cantons. However, despite internal challenges, the Swiss managed to maintain a degree of unity against external threats. The Late Medieval period also witnessed cultural and economic developments. Urbanization increased, and trade flourished as Swiss towns became more prominent centers of commerce. The Confederation’s power and wealth increased significantly, in part also due to the income generated by the mercenary Swiss soldiers.
The Reformation and State’s Independence
The Late Medieval period set the stage for the religious transformations that would occur during the Reformation. While Switzerland was a predominantly Catholic region, there were growing tensions within the Church. Calls for reform and dissatisfaction with certain practices paved the way for the Reformation, which would have a profound impact on the religious and political landscape of Switzerland. Influential figures like Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich and later John Calvin in Geneva played crucial roles in the spread of Protestantism. The Confederacy became religiously divided between Catholic and Protestant cantons, leading to conflicts such as the Wars of Kappel. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 not only officially recognized the coexistence of Catholic and Protestant cantons within the Swiss Confederacy, but Switzerland also attained legal independence from the Holy Roman Empire, solidifying the federal structure.
The Treaty of Paris and Recognition of Neutrality
During the Thirty Years’ War, which ravaged much of Europe, Switzerland was a relative “oasis of peace and prosperity” because all major powers in Europe depended on Swiss mercenaries and would not let Switzerland fall into the hands of one of their rivals. Swiss infantry units were known for their discipline and effectiveness in battle. Switzerland thus managed to maintain its neutrality during this tumultuous period. In 1761, the Treaty of Paris recognized the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland, further solidifying its status as a neutral nation, which would become one of the most important pillars on which the success of Switzerland would later be built.
Economic changes continued in this period, with trade and banking playing crucial roles in the Swiss economy. Cities like Zurich and Geneva became centers of commerce and finance. Socially, there were shifts in the structure of society, with emerging urban elites and continued reliance on agriculture in rural areas. Switzerland experienced cultural and intellectual developments. The spread of ideas from the Enlightenment influenced Swiss society, contributing to discussions on governance, individual rights, and reason.
The Helvetic Republic and Congress of Vienna
The Napoleonic era had a profound impact on Switzerland. In 1798, French forces invaded Switzerland, and the Old Swiss Confederacy collapsed. The Helvetic Republic was established under French influence, introducing centralized governance and administrative changes. Napoleon’s Mediation of 1803 restored a more decentralized federal structure to Switzerland, recognizing the sovereignty of individual cantons.
The Congress of Vienna marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the redrawing of European boundaries. Switzerland’s status as a neutral and independent state was reaffirmed, and its borders were recognized and guaranteed by the major European powers. In the post-Napoleonic period, the Restoration era sought to return Europe to pre-Napoleonic political structures. In Switzerland, the Federal Pact of 1815 was adopted, establishing a loose confederation with a weak federal government. This period emphasized a balance between central authority and cantonal autonomy.
The Federal Constitution
Tensions between conservative and liberal cantons led to the Sonderbund War in 1847. The conflict resulted in a victory for the liberal forces supporting a more centralized and unified Swiss state. The Sonderbund War paved the way for the Federal Constitution of 1848, a significant milestone in Swiss history. This constitution established the modern federal state of Switzerland, with a stronger central government, a bicameral federal assembly, and the principles of individual rights and equal representation. The constitution was amended extensively in 1874, establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal issues, leaving all other matters to the cantonal governments, thus forming the basis of the successful direct democracy that governs Switzerland to this day.
The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed further economic development in Switzerland. Industrialization began to take hold, especially in urban areas, transforming the Swiss economy. Additionally, the emergence of banking and finance continued to contribute to Switzerland’s economic strength. Urbanization increased as industries expanded, particularly in sectors such as textiles, machinery, and chemicals. The building of modern infrastructure, especially railroads, and the growth of industries led to an urban workforce. Consequently, social movements advocating for workers’ rights emerged. Additionally, education and cultural institutions flourished during this period.
The 19th century not only witnessed an expansion of Switzerland, but it also became a hub for international organizations. Geneva, in particular, became a center for diplomacy and humanitarian efforts. The International Committee of the Red Cross was founded in Geneva in 1863.
The World Wars
Switzerland maintained its policy of armed neutrality during World War I. Despite being surrounded by warring nations, Switzerland avoided direct involvement in the conflict. The war had economic repercussions, but Switzerland managed to navigate through the challenges and remained relatively unscathed. The interwar period was characterized by economic difficulties, exacerbated by the global economic downturn of the 1930s. Switzerland faced challenges such as high unemployment rates and social unrest, but it also witnessed advancements in infrastructure and social welfare policies.
Switzerland’s banking and financial sector continued to thrive in the 20th century. The country became known for its banking secrecy laws and stability, attracting international clients. Swiss banks played a significant role in managing financial assets during times of global uncertainty.
During World War II, Switzerland again maintained its policy of armed neutrality but faced scrutiny for its refugee policy. While the country provided refuge for many, especially Jews fleeing Nazi Germany, it also turned away certain individuals, and there were instances of collaboration with Nazi officials. Post-war reflection led to a reevaluation of Switzerland’s actions during this period, including the acceptance of gold and other assets into its possession, and negative ramifications remain to this day.
The Modern Era in Swiss History
After World War II, Switzerland experienced a period of post-war reconstruction and economic growth. The Swiss economy diversified, with a focus on finance, pharmaceuticals, and technology. The country became known for its stability, innovation, and high standard of living. Furthermore, it became increasingly involved in international organizations, such as the United Nations, and contributed to global humanitarian efforts. During the Cold War, Switzerland maintained its policy of neutrality. Despite being surrounded by NATO and Warsaw Pact countries, Switzerland avoided alignment with either bloc and focused on promoting peace and diplomacy.
While not a member of the European Union, Switzerland has maintained close economic ties with the EU through bilateral agreements. The relationship has evolved over time, and Switzerland has negotiated various agreements to access the European single market.
Starting in the latter half of the 20th century, Switzerland became a center for scientific research and innovation, with the establishment of Institutions like CERN, and large investments in its universities and research institutions. The emphasis on innovation and having the capital to support R&D efforts has allowed Swiss industries to stay competitive on a global scale. As an enabler of this, Swiss banking and finance remained a cornerstone of the economy. Swiss banks continued to be known for their stability and discretion, although changes in global financial regulations impacted banking secrecy, significantly challenging them from the beginning of the new millennium onwards.
